English II 📖

Lecture Notes and Activity Questions for IIT Madras Data Science And Electronic Systems Foundation Course - English II.

01 Activity Questions 1.1

“The cafe was like a battleship stripped for action.” The figure of speech used here is ___. Drawing on the information from the sources discussing figures of speech:

02 Figures of Speech Part - 1

Figures of speech are literary devices that help make language more impactful and impressive. They are used in both spoken and written communication to demonstrate command and control over the language, ultimately adding to your confidence. Here are some of the key figures of speech discussed in the sources: Simile ✨ What it is: A simile is a type of comparison between two completely unassociated things or ideas. How it works: It most commonly uses words like “like” or “as” to draw the comparison. It does not provide a literal interpretation; instead, it creates a vivid picture or emphasizes a quality. Examples: “Oh Oh my love is like a red red rose” 🌹 “I wandered lonely as a cloud” ☁️ “He is as modest as a hermit” 🧘 “A face as dull as lead” 😩 “Eyes as bright as blazing star” ⭐ Metaphor 🖼️

03 Activity Questions 1.2

Q1. Which among the following use alliteration in its name? a) Kolkata Knight Riders b) Peter Parker c) Big Billion Days d) All of the above Based on the information in the sources, alliteration is a literary device where the first sounds of two adjacent words or phrases are similar or the same. This repetition of the initial sound is used to make language more impactful and rhythmic. Examples from the sources include:

04 Figures of Speech Part - 2

Unleash Your Words: Figures of Speech - Part 2! ✨🗣️ Hey language learners! 👋 Remember how we talked about figures of speech being those amazing literary devices that make your language more impactful and impressive? They’re not just fancy words; they show you have command and control over English, boosting your confidence in both speaking and writing! In “Part 1,” we explored some classics like simile and metaphor. Today, we’re diving deeper into more fantastic figures of speech that will add flavour and flair to your communication! Let’s get started! 🚀

05 Activity Questions 1.3

1. Which among the following sentences use discourse markers to express opinion Solution Drawing on the information in the sources, discourse markers are words or phrases that can be used to help structure conversation or express the speaker’s attitude or viewpoint. They can appear at the beginning of a sentence and take the entire sentence into their scope.

06 Discourse Markers

Unlocking the Magic of Language: What Are Discourse Markers?! ✨💬 Hey language explorers! 👋 Ever wondered what makes a conversation flow so smoothly, or how some speakers just sound so natural and impressive? 🤔 Well, a big part of that magic comes from tiny but mighty linguistic tools called Discourse Markers! 🗣️ In our journey to command English, we’ve talked about making your language impactful and impressive. Discourse markers are another secret weapon to achieve just that, boosting your communicative confidence in both speaking and writing. They show you have good and effective control over language.

07 Activity Questions 1.4

Rhythm is formed by a set of syllables repeating at regular intervals of time. True False Solution Based on the information in the sources, the statement “Rhythm is formed by a set of syllables repeating at regular intervals of time” is True.

08 Rhythm and Pitch in English

Unlocking the Melody of English: Rhythm & Pitch Explained! 🎶🎤 Hey language adventurers! 👋 Ever listened to a confident English speaker and thought, “Wow, they sound so natural!”? Or maybe you’ve wondered how actors change their voice to convey different emotions? 🤔 A huge part of this lies in the hidden superpowers of Rhythm and Pitch! 💪 Just like discourse markers help our conversations flow smoothly and sound natural, mastering rhythm and pitch is crucial for boosting your communicative confidence. These elements show you have good and effective control over language and help your speech become impactful and impressive.

09 Activity Questions 1.5

Intonations help in: a) Resolving ambiguity b) Imbuing the speaker’s state of mind in the spoken words c) Both (a) and (b) d) Neither (a) nor (b) Solution Based on the information in the sources, intonations help in both resolving ambiguity and imbuing the speaker’s state of mind in the spoken words.

10 Intonation in English

Catch the Vibe: Mastering English Intonation! 🗣️🎶 Hey language lovers! 👋 We’ve chatted about discourse markers that smooth out your sentences and the rhythm and pitch that give your English its unique beat. Now, let’s unlock another super-secret ingredient to sounding truly natural and confident: Intonation! 🎤✨ Just like rhythm and pitch, mastering intonation is absolutely key to boosting your communicative confidence and making your speech impactful and impressive [Intonation in English]. It shows you have good and effective control over language [Intonation in English].

11 Activity Questions 1.6

English belongs to —————– language family. Munda Tibe-to-burman Dravidian Indo Aryan None of these Solution Based on the information provided in the sources:

12 Language Use

Beyond Words: Understanding “Language Use” in English! 🗣️✨ Hello, amazing language learners! 👋 We’ve already explored the fascinating world of Rhythm (the flow! 🥁) and Pitch (the high and low notes! 🎶) that give English its melody, and how Intonation (the voice’s overall song! 🎤) adds layers of meaning and emotion. But what ties all these together, and what does it truly mean to “use” language effectively? 🤔

13 Activity Questions 2.1

Adverbs of manner answer the question of _____. What Why How Where Solution Based on the information in the sources, Adverbs of manner answer the question of How. The sources define adverbs of manner as a category of adverbs that provide information about how an action is performed. They are described as adding to or modifying the verb to indicate the manner in which the action is carried out. Examples given, such as “equally”, “carefully”, “slowly”, and “fast”, illustrate this by describing the manner of distribution, holding, improvement, and running, respectively.

14 Adverbs - A Quick Review

Drawing on the sources and our conversation history, let’s take a quick review of adverbs in English. What are Adverbs? An adverb is a word, or a set of words, that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They add to the verb or modify it. Adverbs give additional information about verbs, things associated with the verb, adjectives, and other adverbs. Think of adverbs as providing detail about how something happens or how someone does something. They typically express when, where, how an action is performed, or indicate the quality or degree of the action. Understanding adverbs is important because they help to brighten up and sharpen our language, making it more impactful and adding flavour.

15 Activity Questions 2.2

‘I was taking a walk when the phone call arrived.’ This sentence is in the: First person present indefinite First person present continuous First person past continuous First person past perfect continuous Solution Based on the information in the sources and our conversation history, let’s break down the sentence “I was taking a walk when the phone call arrived.” to identify its tense and aspect. Person: The subject of the first part of the sentence is “I”. This is the first person pronoun.

16 Tenses and Aspects in English

Drawing on the sources and our conversation history, let’s review tenses and aspects in English. Understanding these concepts is underlined as very important for looking at different forms of verbs and how they work in a sentence. Gaining this understanding, particularly of how it works in the human mind’s subconscious computation, can help you achieve accuracy and build communicative confidence in speaking. In English, we talk about verbs having forms which indicate both tense and aspect.

17 Activity Questions 2.3

The letter _______ by Sarah. (Active voice: Sarah will post the letter) Has been posted Have been posted Will have been posted Will be posted Solution Based on the provided sources, the correct tense marker to complete the sentence ‘The letter _______ by Sarah.’, where the active voice is ‘Sarah will post the letter’, is Will be posted. Here’s the explanation, drawing on the sources: The original active sentence is ‘Sarah will post the letter’. This sentence uses the structure ‘will’ + base verb (‘post’). This structure indicates the future tense. In active sentences, the subject (‘Sarah’) is the doer of the action (‘post’). The object (’the letter’) is what the action is done to. To change an active sentence to the passive voice, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence (‘The letter’). The verb is changed to a passive form, and the original subject (the agent) can be included in a ‘by’ phrase (‘by Sarah’). The general structure for the passive voice is a form of the auxiliary verb ‘be’ plus the past participle of the main verb. The tense of the passive verb must match the tense of the active verb. Since the active sentence is in the future tense (‘will post’), the passive form must also be in the future tense. The sources show that the passive structure for verbs using ‘will’ is ‘will be’ + past participle. For example, the active “Somebody will clean the office tomorrow” becomes the passive “The office will be cleaned tomorrow”. The verb ‘post’ is a regular verb. For regular verbs, the past simple and past participle forms are typically created by adding ‘-ed’. Following this pattern (like ‘clean’ -> ‘cleaned’), the past participle of ‘post’ is ‘posted’. Combining the future passive structure (‘will be’ + past participle) with the past participle ‘posted’, we get ‘will be posted’. Let’s look at the options provided:

18 Structure and Functions of Passives in English

Okay, let’s review the structure and functions of passives in English, drawing on the information from the sources and our previous discussion. Understanding passive constructions is highlighted as important for mastering English, and looking at how they function in the mind can contribute to accuracy and confidence. What is the Passive Voice? In a general sense, the term “passive” can refer to non-involvement or non-directness. In the context of sentences, passive structures denote an event or someone who is acted upon or undergoes the action of the verb. The key characteristic is that the immediate information about the doer, agent, or actor is missing, suppressed, or perhaps simply not expressed.

19 Activity Questions 2.4

Complete the following sentences with the most appropriate word. (Q1-3) Where is my ________ sister? Favouring Favoursome Favourite Fevor Solution Based on the analysis of the sentence structure and the relevant information from the sources, the correct option to complete the sentence “Where is my ________ sister?” is Favourite. Here’s the explanation: The sentence requires a word to modify the noun “sister”. This word should be an adjective. The structure “my ________ sister” follows the pattern of a possessive determiner (“my”) followed by an adjective and then a noun. Source explicitly states that the adjective is placed before the noun, showing examples like “nice day” and “blue eyes”. Let’s examine the provided options: Favouring: This is generally a present participle, which can sometimes act as an adjective, but “favouring sister” is not a standard or common phrase used in this context to describe a sister you prefer. Favoursome: This is not a recognised English word. Favourite: This is a standard English adjective meaning preferred before all others of the same type. Source uses “favourite” to describe preferred things, such as “My favourite colour is blue” and “My favourite sports are football and swimming”. This demonstrates that “favourite” is used as an adjective modifying a noun (colour, sports) to indicate preference, which fits the context of having a preferred sister among others. Fevor: This appears to be a misspelling of “fervour,” which is a noun, not an adjective, and does not fit the grammatical requirement or meaning of the sentence. Given the options and the grammatical need for an adjective indicating preference, “favourite” is the appropriate choice. Its use as a descriptive adjective indicating preference is supported by examples in the sources. Therefore, the completed sentence is:

20 Important concepts in Adjectives

Based on the sources and our conversation history, let’s delve into some important concepts in adjectives. Understanding these details, particularly how they relate to the structure of sentences and how our minds process them, can significantly impact your command of English and boost your confidence. Adjectives are a fundamental part of speech. While we may be familiar with their basic definition, exploring certain aspects can deepen our understanding. What Adjectives Do

21 Activity Questions 2.5

State whether the following sentence is grammatically right. Degree adverbs are used in front of prepositions. True False Solution Based on the information provided in the sources and our conversation history: The statement “Degree adverbs are used in front of prepositions” is False, according to the sources. Here’s why: Sources define degree adverbs as words or sets of words that give information about the extent or degree of something. Degree adverbs are explicitly stated to be used before adjectives, verbs or other adverbs to provide this information. Examples are given like “extremely sad” (before an adjective), “really hate” (before a verb), and “almost always” (before another adverb). The sources discuss the position of degree adverbs relative to adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. Source also mentions a “unique ordering” for ‘quite’ and ‘rather’ when they precede an adjective and a noun (e.g., “quite a challenging task” from our conversation, or “a rather painful decision” mentioned in a previous evaluation, although source specifically shows “a fairy cold day”, “a very cold day” etc. with the article first, and notes ‘quite, rather’ as unique). While prepositions are discussed extensively in the sources, and prepositional phrases are noted as sometimes functioning adverbially or adjectivally, the sources do not state that degree adverbs modify prepositions themselves or are placed directly in front of prepositions in a modifying role. The examples provided of degree adverbs and what they modify do not include prepositions. Therefore, based on the categories of words that degree adverbs are said to modify (adjectives, verbs, other adverbs), and the absence of any mention or example of degree adverbs modifying prepositions, the statement is not supported by the provided material.

22 Degree Adverbs

Based on the sources provided and our conversation history, here are some important concepts in degree adverbs: Definition and Function: Degree adverbs are words, or sets of words, that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They are used before adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. They provide information about the extent or degree of something. They indicate the quality of degree of the action. They explain or indicate the amount or the amount of force. They answer the question “how much?”. Words like ’extremely’, ‘really’, ‘almost’, ‘completely’, ‘fairly’, ‘quite’, ‘rather’, ‘slightly’, ’too’, ’totally’, ‘very much’, and ‘very’ are examples of degree adverbs. Other examples include ’nearly’, ’entirely’, ’less’, ‘mildly’, ‘most’, ’thoroughly’, ‘somewhat’, and ’excessively’. Examples of Use:

23 Activity Questions 2.6

‘_______, he had to close down his business.’ Luckily Unfortunately Technically Theoretically Solution Based on the sources and our conversation history, the words that can fit into the blank in the sentence ‘_______, he had to close down his business.’ are words that function as sentence adverbs, specifically those that act as comment adverbs or viewpoint adverbs. These types of adverbs modify or comment on the entire clause or sentence that follows them.

24 Adverbs - Comment, Viewpoint and Focus

Drawing on the information from the sources and our conversation history, let’s explore the concepts of Comment, Viewpoint, and Focus adverbs. We’ve previously discussed adverbs in general as words or sets of words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, indicating aspects like when, where, how, and how much an action is performed. These types of adverbs, such as adverbs of manner, degree, place, and time, often relate to the structural aspects of a sentence.

25 Activity Questions 3.1

Q1. All clauses have independent status. This statement is A. True B. False Solution Based on the information in the sources, the statement “All clauses have independent status” is B. False.

26 Sentence, Clause, and Complex Sentences

Drawing on the sources, here is an explanation of sentences, clauses, and complex sentences. A sentence is described as a structural unit in language. It is the fundamental tool for communication, and multiple sentences combine to form a discourse. A sentence has two essential components: a subject and a predicate. The predicate contains all information other than the subject, and everything within the predicate relates to the verb. In English, the subject and predicate are connected by agreement, specifically concerning number and person. All English sentences are considered to have a subject and a predicate, even if the subject is not explicitly stated, such as in imperative sentences. The human mind processes sentences, whether large or small, without difficulty, structurally treating even complex sentences like simple ones.

27 Activity Questions 3.2

1. ‘John trains the dog.’ is ____. An independent clause A simple sentence Has an explicit subject All of the above Solution ‘Both the grey cat with the ginger paws and the sandy dog with the black patches were running towards the green moss-covered rocks by the river.’ is a simple sentence. True

28 Describing Clauses and Sentences

Based on the sources and our conversation, here is an explanation of sentences, clauses, and complex sentences: What is a Sentence? A sentence is a structural unit in language. It is considered the fundamental tool for communication. Sentences combine to form a discourse. A sentence is described as having two essential parts: a subject and a predicate. Everything within the predicate relates to the verb. The subject and predicate are connected by agreement, which in English primarily involves number and person. All English sentences are considered to have a subject and a predicate, even if the subject is not explicitly present, such as in imperative sentences. The human mind processes sentences structurally, treating even complex sentences like simple ones, which primarily contain a subject, verb, and object. Understanding the fundamentals of sentences is essential for producing grammatical sentences.

29 Activity Questions 3.3

In clause analysis, the number of clauses, their nature, and their function are identified and understood. True False Solution ‘Rohan resigned and joined a new company’. This sentence is a ___. Simple sentence

30 Illustrating Clauses and Sentences

Drawing on the sources and our conversation, here is an explanation of sentences, clauses, and complex sentences, along with illustrations from the provided text. What is a Sentence? A sentence is described as a structural unit in language. It serves as the fundamental tool for communication. Multiple sentences combine to form a discourse. A sentence has two essential components: a subject and a predicate. The predicate contains all information other than the subject, and everything within the predicate relates to the verb. In English, the subject and predicate are connected by agreement, specifically concerning number and person. All English sentences are considered to have a subject and a predicate, even if the subject is not explicitly stated, such as in imperative sentences. Understanding the fundamental components of a sentence is essential for producing grammatical sentences. The human mind processes sentences structurally, treating even complex sentences like simple ones.

31 Activity Questions 3.4

‘Ramesh is celebrating his promotion, which he has been looking forward to for years now, in a lavish way.’ The adjectival clause is _____. Ramesh is celebrating his promotion Ramesh is celebrating his promotion in a lavish way Which he has been looking forward to for years now in a lavish way Which he has been looking forward to for years now Solution ‘The man, whose house I passed by everyday on my way to the coffee shop, was a recluse, who was never seen outside except during the monsoon, when he would emerge to sail paper boats in puddles, which would form in his garden.’ This sentence has _____clauses 2

32 Adjectival (Relative) Clause

Drawing on the sources, let’s explore Adjectival (Relative) Clauses, how they function within sentences, and see some illustrations. First, it’s helpful to understand the relationship between sentences and clauses. A sentence is described as a structural unit that serves as the fundamental tool for communication. A sentence contains two essential components: a subject and a predicate. Agreement between the subject and predicate, regarding number and person, is important. Conceptually, a sentence is also a clause, and a clause can function as a sentence. The key distinction lies in independence. When a sentence is embedded within a larger sentence, that embedded sentence is called a clause.

33 Activity Questions 3.5

Agreement of the subject and predicate is necessary for the sentence to be grammatically correct. True False Solution ‘Janani has a motorbike which she loves to ride.’ In this, the complement is Janani

34 Required and Optional Elements in English Sentences (Complements and Adjuncts)

Drawing on the sources and our conversation history, let’s explore the concept of Required and Optional Elements in English Sentences, referred to as Complements and Adjuncts. Understanding these elements is fundamental to grasping what makes a sentence grammatical and complete. It’s an important aspect of understanding the underlying rules for producing grammatical sentences and can significantly improve your confidence in writing and speaking. The sources introduce two main types of elements based on their necessity within a sentence structure: